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NIGERIA EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES TRANSPARENCY INITIATIVE (NEITI) AND NATURAL RESOURCE REVENUE GOVERNANCE IN THE NIGERIAN OIL AND GAS SECTOR (2007 – 2015)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title ———————————————————————————— i
Certification ————————————————————————————- ii
Approval —————————————————————————————— iii
Dedication —————————————————————————————— iv
Acknowledgement —————————————————————————– v
Table of Contents ——————————————————————————— vii
List of Figures ———————————————————————————— xi
List of Tables ————————————————————————————- xv
List of Appendices ————————————————————————– xix
Abbreviations and Acronyms ——————————————————— xx
Abstract —————————————————————————————– xxiv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study —————————————————– 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ———————————————————— 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study ————————————————————— 8
1.4 Significance of the Study —————————————————— 8
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study ———————————— 10
1.5.1 Scope of the Study —————————————————————— 10
1.5.2 Limitations of the Study ————————————————————- 10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Introduction ————————————————————————- 12
2.2 Conceptual Framework —————————————————— 12
2.2.1 Natural Resource Revenues —————————————————- 12
2.2.2 Natural Resource Revenue Governance ——————————— 15
2.2.3 Resource Led Development —————————————————- 17
2.2.4 Resource Curse ———————————————————————– 20
2.3 Natural Resource Revenue Governance and Initiatives to address the Resource Curse – Transparency and accountability initiatives (TAIs) ———- 26
2.4 Emergence of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) —————– 31
2.5 Implementation of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative in Nigeria (NEITI) ——————————————————— 38
2.5.1 The Extractive Industries Sector in Nigeria ————————– 38
2.5.2 The Oil and Gas Sector ——————————————— 39
2.5.3 The Oil and Gas Sector and the Resource Curse in Nigeria- 42
2.5.4 Tackling the Resource Curse through the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI): The NEITI – Natural Resource Revenue Governance Nexus ———————————————— 49
2.5.5 Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) and Enforcement of Transparency and Accountability in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector ————— 54
2.5.6 Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI)and Stakeholders in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector ———– 58
2.6 Gap in Literature ————————————————————- 64
2.7 Theoretical Framework————————————————————- 64
2.7.1 The Institutional Theory —————————————————— 64
2.7.2 Tenets of the Institutional Theory of Mahlum, Moene and Torvik-68
2.7.3 Relevance of the Theory to the Study ——————————- 69
2.8 Hypotheses —————————————————– 70
2.9 Operational Definition of Concepts ——————————— 71
2.9.1 Natural Resource Revenues ————————————— 71
2.9.2 Natural Resource Revenue Governance ——————————– 71
2.9.3 Resource Led Development ———————————————- 72
2.9.4 Resource Curse ———————————————————- 72
2.9.5 Audit Process ————————————————— 72
2.9.6 Audit Publications ————————————————— 72
2.9.7 Conflicting Multi Stakeholder Interests ——————————— 73
2.9.8 Weak Civil Society —————————————————— 73
2.9.9 Multi Stakeholder Synergy ————————————————– 73
2.9.10 Civil Society Empowerment —–
CHAPTER THREE: AREA OF THE STUDY AND RESEARCH PROCEDURE
3.1 Introduction ———————————————————————- 75
3.2 Area of the Study —————————————————————— 75
3.2.1 The Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) 75
3.2.2 Mandate of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) ———————————————————— 78
3.2.3 Administrative Structure of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) ————————————— 79
3.2.4 Functions of Departments of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) ——————————————- 81
3.3 Research Procedure —————————————————— 83
3.3.1 Research Design ————————————————–83
3.3.2 Population of the Study —————————————————– 84
3.3.3 Sample Size Determination ——————————————– 85
3.3.4 Sampling Technique and Sample Size Distribution —————- 86
3.3.5 Sources of Data Collection ——————————————- 88
3.3.6 Validity and Reliability of Research Instrument ——————– 88
3.3.7 Methods of Data Presentation and Analysis —————— 89
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Introduction ————————————————————————— 90
4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data —————————————- 92
4.3 Summary of Findings ———————————————————– 218
4.4 Test of Hypotheses ————————————————————— 219
4.5 Discussion of Findings ———————————————————– 223
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary —————————————————————————– 234
5.2 Recommendations ——————————————————– 237
5.3 Conclusion ———————————————————————— 240
References ————————————————————————– 243
Appendices ———————————————————————– 273
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 The EITI Implementation Cycle ——————————— 34
Figure 2.2 The EITI Multi-stakeholder Framework and How it Works 36
Figure 2.3 NEITI’s Complementary Government Agencies ————- 60
Figure 3.1 Organogram of NEITI —————————— 80
Figure 4.1 Companies’ Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Revenue Types (2007-2014) ——————————————- 94
Figure 4.2 Companies’ Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ———————————————– 96
Figure 4.3 PPT Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) -97
Figure 4.4 Oil Royalty Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ———————————————– 97
Figure 4.5 Gas Royalty Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ——————- 98
Figure 4.6 Signature Bonus Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ———————- 99
Figure 4.7 Gas Flaring Penalty Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) —————————————————————— 100
Figure 4.8 Concession Rentals Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) ———————————————————- 100
Figure 4.9 CIT Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) —101
Figure 4.10 VAT Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) — 102
Figure 4.11 Other Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) 103
Figure 4.12 Oil and Gas sector revenue receipts of Government(2007 – 2014) ———————————- 106
Figure 4.13 Aggregate of Oil and Gas Revenue Receipts of Government by Percentages (2007 – 2014) ——————————————————- 107
Figure 4.14 Aggregate of Oil and Gas Revenue Receipts of Government by Years (2007 – 2014) ———————————– 108
Figure 4.15 Aggregate Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government by Years (2007 – 2014) ————————————– 116
Figure 4.16 Revenue Disclosure by Government (Federation Account versus Other Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) ——————– 117
Figure 4.17 Aggregate of Financial Flows from the Oil and Gas Sector(2007 – 2014) ——————————————– 118
Figure 4.18 Percentage Contributions of Revenue Heads to Total Oil and Gas Revenue (2007 – 2014) ———————————————– 120
Figure 4.19 Comparison of Cumulative Financial Flows (2007 – 2014)[Initial Templates] ——————————————————- 129
Figure 4.20 Comparison of Net Differences in Financial Flows (2007 – 2014) [Initial Templates] ————————————————— 130
Figure 4.21 Comparison of Physical Flows by Years [Crude Oil Production Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ——————————————- 132
Figure 4.22 Aggregate of Physical Flows by Years [Crude Oil Production Volumes] (2007 – 2014) —————————————— 133
Figure 4.23 Comparison of Variances in Physical Flows[Crude Oil Production Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ——————————— 134
Figure 4.24 Comparison of Physical Flows by Years [Crude Oil Lifting Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ————————————————– 137
Figure 4.25 Aggregate of Physical Flows [Crude Oil Lifting Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ————————————————– 138
Figure 4.28 Aggregate of Federation Revenue by Revenue Heads (Percentages) ——————————————————————- 141
Figure 4.29 Federation Revenue by Years ———————————— 142
Figure 4.30 Aggregate of Federation Revenue by Years ——— 143
Figure 4.31 Federation Revenue Vertical Sharing Model ———-144
Figure 4.32 Disbursement of Mineral Revenue by Years (2007 – 2011) 146
Figure 4.33 Aggregate Disbursement of Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) -147
Figure 4.34 Disbursement of Non Mineral Revenue by Years (2007 – 2011) —————————————————- 148
Figure 4.35 Aggregate Disbursement of Non Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) ———————————————————– 149
Figure 4.36 Disbursement of VAT by Years (2007 – 2011) ———- 151
Figure 4.37 Aggregate Disbursement of VAT (2007 – 2011) ———- 152
Figure 4.38 Comparison of Financial Flows Reconciliation (2007 – 2014) [Adjusted Figures] ———————————————– 164
Figure 4.39 Comparison of Net Differences in Financial Flows Reconciliation (2007 – 2014) [Adjusted Figures] —————————- 165
Figure 4.40 Contribution of Oil and Gas to the Federation Account
(2000 – 2015) ————————————————————————- 181
Figure 4.41 Contribution of Oil and Gas to the Federation Account by Percentage(2004 – 2015) —————————————————– 182
Figure 4.42 Funds Recovered by NEITI ————————— 183
Figure 4.43 Funding Available for NEITI Operations (2013) ———– 188
Figure 4.44 Funding Available for NEITI Operations (2007 – 2015)—– 189
Figure 4.45 Government Revenue Structure (1960 – 2015) ———-199
Figure 4.46 Contribution of Oil and Non Oil Revenue to the Federation Account (2007 – 2015) —————————————————– 201
Figure 4.47 Oil Revenue as a Percentage of Total Government Revenue(2007 – 2015) ——————————————————– 201
Figure 4.48 Oil and Non Oil Revenue as Percentage of GDP(2007 – 2015) —————– 202
Figure 4.49 Oil Export as a Percentage of Total Government Export(2007 – 2015) ————-203
Figure 4.50 External Debt Profile (1960 – 2015) —————————– 205
Figure 4.51 Nigeria EITI Validation Score Card (2015) ————- 212
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Population of the Study ———————————— 85
Table 3.2 Sample Size Distribution ————————————– 87
Table 3.3 Sample Size Distribution (NEITI) ————————————- 88
Table 4.1 NEITI and Revenue Remittances by Oil and Gas Companies to Government ———————— 92
Table 4.2 NEITI and Data / Information Management of Oil and Gas Revenue Receipts by Government Agencies ——————– 104
Table 4.3 Shortfall in Remittance to Federation Account from Domestic Crude Proceeds ——————————————————- 109
Table 4.4 NEITI and Revenue Receipt Disclosure by Government Agencies ———————————————– 110
Table 4.5 Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Sales of Crude Oil and Gas, 2007 – 2014) ———————– 111
Table 4.6 Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Specific Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) —————————- 112
Table 4.7 Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Non Specific Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) ————————————- 113
Table 4.8 Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Other Financial Flows to Federal, States/ Local Governments & Government Entities, 2007 – 2014) —————————————————– 114
Table 4.9 Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Aggregate Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) —————————————- 115
Table 4.10 NEITI and the Financial, Physical, Process and Fiscal Allocation/ Statutory Disbursement (FASD) Audits (2007 – 2015) ——–121
Table 4.11 Comparison of Financial Flows (2007) —————– 122
Table 4.12 Comparison of Financial Flows (2008) —————— 123
Table 4.13 Comparison of Financial Flows (2009) ——————— 124
Table 4.14 Comparison of Financial Flows (2010) ————————- 124
Table 4.15 Comparison of Financial Flows (2011) ——————– 125
Table 4.16 Comparison of Financial Flows (2012) —————— 126
Table 4.17 Comparison of Financial Flows (2013) ————- 127
Table 4.18 Comparison of Financial Flows (2014) ———— 128
Table 4.19 Comparison of Physical Flows (Crude Oil Production Volumes, 2007 – 2014) ————————————————– 130
Table 4.20 Comparison of Physical Flows (Crude Oil Lifting Volumes, 2007 – 2014) ———————————– 135
Table 4.21 Federation Revenue (2007 – 2011) ————————————————– 140
Table 4.22 Federation Revenue Vertical Sharing Formula —— 144
Table 4.23 Disbursement of Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) —– 145
Table 4.24 Disbursement of Non Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) —–147
Table 4.25 Disbursement of VAT (2007 – 2011) ————- 150
Table 4.26 Publication of NEITI Audits ——————– 154
Table 4.27 NEITI and the Reconciliation/ Remediation of Audit Findings 155
Table 4.28 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2007) —————- 156
Table 4.29 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2008) ————— 157
Table 4.30 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2009) ——————- 158
Table 4.31 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2010) —————– 159
Table 4.32 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2011) ———————- 160
Table 4.33 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2012) —————- 161
Table 4.34 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2013) —————— 162
Table 4.35 Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2014) ———————– 163
Table 4.36 NEITI Audits and Natural Resource Revenue Governance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector ———————————- 167
Table 4.37 NEITI and Communication Linkages with Complementary Government Agencies ————————————- 172
Table 4.38 NEITI and Collaboration with Complementary Government Agencies ——————————————————- 173
Table 4.39 NEITI and Collaboration with Civil Society ————– 175
Table 4.40 NEITI and Accountability of Government on Public Spending — 179
Table 4.41 Challenges Affecting NEITI in Implementing EITI Standards ——–185
Table 4.42 Challenges Affecting Complementary Agencies in Supporting NEITI ——————————————————- 193
Table 4.43 PPT Fiscal Value Validation ———————— 194
Table 4.44 Revalidation of the Royalty Value on Chargeable Oil —196
Table 4.45 NEITI and the Resource Curse Challenge in Nigeria — 198
Table 4.46 NEITI and Strategies Adopted to Foster Natural Resource Revenue Governance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector —- 206
Table 4.47 NEITI and Mechanisms for Improved Natural Resource Revenue Governance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector ————– 224
Table 4.48 One Sample Statistics (NEITI and Transparency)——219
Table 4.49 One Sample Test (NEITI and Transparency) —— 219
Table 4.50 One Sample Statistics (NEITI and Accountability) ——–220
Table 4.51 One Sample Test (NEITI and Accountability) ——- 220
Table 4.52 One Sample Statistics (Conflicting MSI and NRRG) ———–220
Table 4.53 One Sample Test (Conflicting MSI and NRRG) ——–221
Table 4.54 One Sample Statistics (Weak CS and NRRG) ——— 221
Table 4.55 One Sample Test (Weak CS and NRRG) ——221
Table 4.56 One Sample Statistics (IMS Synergy and NRRG) ———– 222
Table 4.57 One Sample Test (IMS Synergy and NRRG) ———222
Table 4.58 One Sample Statistics (CS Empowerment and NRRG) —222
Table 4.59 One Sample Test (CS Empowerment and NRRG) ——–223
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I Interview Guide Questions ——————- 273
Appendix II NEITI ACT, 2007 ————————————- 275
Appendix III NEITI ACT, 2007 [Summary] ——————– 290
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
S/N ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS MEANINGS
1 AGF Attorney General of the Federation
2 ANEEJ Africa Network for Environment and Economic Justice
3 APP Adjusted Posted Price
4 AU African Union
5 Bbls Barrel(s)
6 BEITI Bayelsa Expenditure and Income Transparency Initiative
7 BL Bill of Lading
8 BMPIU Budget Monitoring and Price Intelligence Unit
9 BOFIA Bank and Other Financial Institutions Act
10 CBN Central Bank of Nigeria
11 CBOs Community Based Organizations
12 CFRN Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
13 CISLAC Civil Society Legislative Advocacy Center
14 CORC Crude Oil Reconciliation Commission
15 CPPC Centre for Public Private Cooperation
16 CRF Consolidated Revenue Fund
17 CSOs Civil Society Organizations
18 CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
19 CSSC Civil Society Steering Committee
20 DFID Department for International Development
21 DPR Department of Petroleum Resources
22 E & P Exploration and Production
23 ECA Excess Crude Account
24 EDT Education Tax
25 EFCC Economic and Financial Crimes Commission
26 EGPS Extractive Global Programmatic Support
27 EI Extractive Industry
28 EIA Environmental impact Assessment
29 EIR Extractive Industries Review
30 EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
31 ESID Effective States and Inclusive Development
32 EU European Union
33 FAAC Federation Accounts Allocation Committee
34 FASD Fiscal Allocation and Statutory Disbursement
35 FBOs Faith Based Organizations
36 FCT Federal Capital Territory
37 FDI Foreign Direct Investment
38 FIRS Federal Inland Revenue Service
39 FPOs Federal Pay Offices
40 G20 Group of 20
41 G8 Group of 8
42 GDP Gross Domestic Product
43 GNP Gross National Product
44 GRPD Greenfield Refinery Projects Division
45 GW Global Witness
46 HDI Human Development Index
47 HPI Human Poverty Index
48 HYSON Hydrocarbon Services Nigeria Limited
49 IA Independent Auditors
50 IBLF International Business Leaders Forum
51 ICMM International Council on Mining and Metals
52 ICPC Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission
53 ICT Information and Communication Technology
54 IFC International Finance Corporation
55 IIDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
56 IMF International Monetary Fund
57 IMTT Inter Ministerial Task Team
58 IOCs International Oil Companies
59 JVs Joint Ventures
60 KPMG Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler
61 KRPC Kaduna Refining and Petro Chemical Company Limited
62 LDCs Less Developed Countries
63 LGs Local Government (s)
64 LOCs Local Oil Companies
65 MCA Modified Carry Agreement
66 MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies
67 MDTF Multi Donor Trust Fund
68 MNCs Multinational Corporations
69 MoU Memorandum of Understanding
70 MR Mineral Revenue
71 MSG Multi Stakeholder Group
72 MSI Multi Stakeholder Initiative
73 NAOC Nigerian Agip Oil Company
74 NAPIMS National Petroleum Investment Management Service
75 NBS National Bureau of Statistics
76 NCDMB Nigerian Content Development and Monitoring Board
77 NCS Nigeria Customs Service
78 NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission
79 NEITI Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
80 NEPA National Electricity Power Authority
81 NESS Nigerian Export Supervision Scheme
82 NETCO National Engineering and Technical Company Limited
83 NGC Nigerian Gas Company
84 NGOs Non Governmental Organizations
85 NIMASA Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency
86 NIWA National Inland Waterways Authority
87 NLNG Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas
88 NMR Non Mineral revenue
89 NNOC Nigerian National Oil Corporation
90 NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
91 NOCs National Oil Companies
92 NPDC Nigerian Petroleum Development Company
93 NRGI Natural Resource Governance Institute
94 NSWG National Stakeholders Working Group
95 OAGF Office of the Accountant General of the Federation
96 OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
97 OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
98 OSP Official Selling Price
99 PAYE Pay As You Earn
100 PHCN Power Holding Company of Nigeria
101 PHRC Port Harcourt Refining Company
102 PITD Petroleum and International Tax Department
103 PP Posted Price
104 PPMC Products and Pipelines Marketing Company
105 PPP Purchasing Power Parity
106 PPPRA Petroleum Product Pricing Regulatory Agency
107 PPSRC Petroleum Products Sales Reconciliation Committee
108 PPT Petroleum Profit Tax
109 PPTA Petroleum Profit Tax Act
110 PRSPs Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers
111 PSCs Production Sharing Contracts
112 PTDF Petroleum Technology Development Fund
113 PWYP Publish What You Pay
114 REI Resource Endowment Initiative
115 RMAFC Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal Commission
116 RP Realizable Prices
117 RSCs Risk Sharing Contracts
118 SCs Service Contracts
119 SDSN Sustainable Development Solutions Network
120 SR Sole Risk
121 SSA Sub Saharan Africa
122 TAIs Transparency and Accountability Initiatives
123 Tcf Trillion Cubic Feet
124 TFP Total Factor Productivity
125 TGEXP Total Government Export
126 U.S United States
127 UKDFID United Kingdom Department for International Development
128 UN United Nations
129 VAT Value Added Tax
130 WB World Bank
131 WHT Withholding Tax
132 WRPC Warri Refining and Petro Chemical Company Limited
133 WW II Second World War / World War Two
135 www World Wide Web
ABSTRACT
The impact of natural resources on development has been a controversial issue for decades. Natural resources were considered to offer developing countries great opportunities to boost economic growth and development. However, natural resource revenues, for most LDCs, have shown to generate adverse economic and political outcomes. The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) was launched in 2003 as an international policy and institutional intervention aimed at mitigating the negative effects of resource abundance by promoting the transparency of resource revenues and accountability of the governments in resource rich states. Nigeria signed on to the global EITI process, following an official launch in 2004, which led to the establishment of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI). The objective of the study was to assess the impact of NEITI on natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector from 2007 to 2015. The Institutional theory was adopted as the theoretical underpinning of the study. Survey design was employed as the research methodology. Data analysis was done by use of descriptive analysis. The data analyzed revealed that NEITI has enhanced natural resource revenue transparency but has not enhanced natural resource revenue accountability in the Nigerian oil and gas sector. It established that internal constraints such as inadequate funding, poor automation processes and limitations in the NEITI Act, and external constraints such as weak civil society, conflicting multi stakeholder interest, and lack of political will by government were factors that acted as impediments to NEITI’s role in enhancing natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector. The data analysis also revealed that NEITI’s strategies directed at effective audits, dissemination of information on NEITI processes, and increased collaboration with international organizations have not translated to improved natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector. The study recommended that the review of the NEITI Act, improved synergy between stakeholders in the NEITI framework, rapid automation of the oil and gas sector, timely publication of NEITI audits and vigorous civil society empowerment are mechanisms to be adopted by NEITI to improve natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector.
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