NIGERIA EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES TRANSPARENCY INITIATIVE (NEITI) AND NATURAL RESOURCE REVENUE GOVERNANCE IN THE NIGERIAN OIL AND GAS SECTOR (2007 – 2015)

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NIGERIA EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES TRANSPARENCY INITIATIVE (NEITI) AND NATURAL RESOURCE REVENUE GOVERNANCE IN THE NIGERIAN OIL AND GAS SECTOR (2007 – 2015)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title ————————————————————————————      i

Certification ————————————————————————————-    ii

Approval ——————————————————————————————    iii

Dedication ——————————————————————————————    iv

Acknowledgement —————————————————————————–    v

Table of Contents ———————————————————————————    vii

List of Figures ————————————————————————————     xi

List of Tables ————————————————————————————-     xv

List of Appendices ————————————————————————–    xix

Abbreviations and Acronyms ———————————————————  xx

Abstract —————————————————————————————–    xxiv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION      

1.1       Background to the Study —————————————————–  1        

1.2       Statement of the Problem ————————————————————   5

1.3       Objectives of the Study —————————————————————   8

1.4       Significance of the Study ——————————————————   8

1.5       Scope and Limitations of the Study ———————————— 10

1.5.1    Scope of the Study ——————————————————————   10

1.5.2    Limitations of the Study ————————————————————-   10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1       Introduction ————————————————————————-     12

2.2       Conceptual Framework  ——————————————————    12

2.2.1    Natural Resource Revenues —————————————————-    12

2.2.2    Natural Resource Revenue Governance ———————————  15

2.2.3    Resource Led Development —————————————————-   17

2.2.4    Resource Curse ———————————————————————–    20

2.3       Natural Resource Revenue Governance and Initiatives to address the Resource Curse – Transparency and accountability initiatives (TAIs) ———- 26

2.4       Emergence of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) —————–          31

2.5       Implementation of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative in Nigeria (NEITI) ———————————————————    38

2.5.1    The Extractive Industries Sector in Nigeria ————————– 38

2.5.2    The Oil and Gas Sector ———————————————    39

2.5.3    The Oil and Gas Sector and the Resource Curse in Nigeria-            42

2.5.4    Tackling the Resource Curse through the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI): The NEITI – Natural Resource Revenue Governance Nexus ————————————————    49

2.5.5    Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) and Enforcement of Transparency and Accountability in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector —————           54

2.5.6    Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI)and Stakeholders in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector ———–            58

2.6       Gap in Literature ————————————————————-    64

2.7       Theoretical Framework————————————————————-    64

2.7.1    The Institutional Theory ——————————————————    64

2.7.2    Tenets of the Institutional Theory of Mahlum, Moene and Torvik-68

2.7.3    Relevance of the Theory to the Study ——————————-  69

2.8       Hypotheses —————————————————–     70

2.9       Operational Definition of Concepts ———————————  71

2.9.1    Natural Resource Revenues —————————————   71

2.9.2    Natural Resource Revenue Governance ——————————–  71

2.9.3    Resource Led Development ———————————————-   72

2.9.4    Resource Curse ———————————————————-     72

2.9.5    Audit Process —————————————————     72

2.9.6    Audit Publications —————————————————     72

2.9.7    Conflicting Multi Stakeholder Interests ———————————  73

2.9.8    Weak Civil Society ——————————————————     73

2.9.9    Multi Stakeholder Synergy ————————————————–    73

2.9.10 Civil Society Empowerment —–

CHAPTER THREE: AREA OF THE STUDY AND RESEARCH PROCEDURE

3.1       Introduction ———————————————————————-     75      

3.2       Area of the Study ——————————————————————   75

3.2.1    The Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) 75

3.2.2    Mandate of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) ————————————————————     78

3.2.3    Administrative Structure of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) —————————————    79

3.2.4    Functions of Departments of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) ——————————————-    81

3.3       Research Procedure ——————————————————      83

3.3.1    Research Design ————————————————–83

3.3.2    Population of the Study —————————————————–    84

3.3.3    Sample Size Determination ——————————————–     85

3.3.4    Sampling Technique and Sample Size Distribution —————-   86

3.3.5    Sources of Data Collection ——————————————-    88

3.3.6    Validity and Reliability of Research Instrument ——————–  88

3.3.7    Methods of Data Presentation and Analysis ——————  89

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1       Introduction —————————————————————————      90

4.2       Presentation and Analysis of Data —————————————-    92

4.3       Summary of Findings ———————————————————–     218

4.4       Test of Hypotheses —————————————————————     219

4.5       Discussion of Findings ———————————————————–    223

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1       Summary —————————————————————————–      234

5.2       Recommendations ——————————————————–     237

5.3       Conclusion ————————————————————————      240

References ————————————————————————–      243

Appendices ———————————————————————–      273

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1        The EITI Implementation Cycle ———————————   34

Figure 2.2        The EITI Multi-stakeholder Framework and How it Works 36

Figure 2.3        NEITI’s Complementary Government Agencies ————- 60

Figure 3.1        Organogram of NEITI ——————————   80

Figure 4.1        Companies’ Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Revenue Types (2007-2014) ——————————————-    94

Figure 4.2        Companies’ Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ———————————————–    96

Figure 4.3        PPT Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) -97

Figure 4.4        Oil Royalty Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ———————————————–    97

Figure 4.5        Gas Royalty Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ——————-    98

Figure 4.6        Signature Bonus Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ———————-    99

Figure 4.7        Gas Flaring Penalty Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years(2007-2014) ——————————————————————    100

Figure 4.8        Concession Rentals Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) ———————————————————-    100

Figure 4.9        CIT Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) —101

Figure 4.10      VAT Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) — 102

Figure 4.11      Other Payments in the Oil & Gas Sector by Years (2007-2014) 103

Figure 4.12      Oil and Gas sector revenue receipts of Government(2007 – 2014) ———————————-    106

Figure 4.13      Aggregate of Oil and Gas Revenue Receipts of Government by Percentages (2007 – 2014) ——————————————————-   107

Figure 4.14      Aggregate of Oil and Gas Revenue Receipts of Government by Years (2007 – 2014) ———————————–    108

Figure 4.15     Aggregate Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government by Years (2007 – 2014) ————————————–    116

Figure 4.16      Revenue Disclosure by Government (Federation Account versus Other Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) ——————–   117

Figure 4.17      Aggregate of Financial Flows from the Oil and Gas Sector(2007 – 2014) ——————————————–     118

Figure 4.18      Percentage Contributions of Revenue Heads to Total Oil and Gas Revenue (2007 – 2014) ———————————————–   120

Figure 4.19      Comparison of Cumulative Financial Flows (2007 – 2014)[Initial Templates] ——————————————————-     129

Figure 4.20      Comparison of Net Differences in Financial Flows (2007 – 2014) [Initial Templates] —————————————————     130

Figure 4.21      Comparison of Physical Flows by Years [Crude Oil Production Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ——————————————-     132

Figure 4.22      Aggregate of Physical Flows by Years [Crude Oil Production Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ——————————————     133

Figure 4.23      Comparison of Variances in Physical Flows[Crude Oil Production Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ———————————  134

Figure 4.24      Comparison of Physical Flows by Years [Crude Oil Lifting Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ————————————————–     137

Figure 4.25                  Aggregate of Physical Flows [Crude Oil Lifting Volumes] (2007 – 2014) ————————————————–     138

Figure 4.28      Aggregate of Federation Revenue by Revenue Heads (Percentages) ——————————————————————-     141

Figure 4.29      Federation Revenue by Years ————————————   142

Figure 4.30      Aggregate of Federation Revenue by Years ———  143

Figure 4.31         Federation Revenue Vertical Sharing Model ———-144

Figure 4.32      Disbursement of Mineral Revenue by Years (2007 – 2011) 146

Figure 4.33      Aggregate Disbursement of Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) -147

Figure 4.34      Disbursement of Non Mineral Revenue by Years (2007 – 2011) —————————————————-     148

Figure 4.35      Aggregate Disbursement of Non Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) ———————————————————–     149

Figure 4.36      Disbursement of VAT by Years (2007 – 2011) ———-  151

Figure 4.37      Aggregate Disbursement of VAT (2007 – 2011) ———-  152

Figure 4.38      Comparison of Financial Flows Reconciliation (2007 – 2014) [Adjusted Figures] ———————————————–     164

Figure 4.39      Comparison of Net Differences in Financial Flows Reconciliation (2007 – 2014) [Adjusted Figures] —————————-    165

Figure 4.40      Contribution of Oil and Gas to the Federation Account

(2000 – 2015) ————————————————————————-     181

Figure 4.41      Contribution of Oil and Gas to the Federation Account by Percentage(2004 – 2015) —————————————————–     182

Figure 4.42      Funds Recovered by NEITI —————————   183

Figure 4.43      Funding Available for NEITI Operations (2013) ———–  188

Figure 4.44      Funding Available for NEITI Operations (2007 – 2015)—– 189

Figure 4.45      Government Revenue Structure (1960 – 2015) ———-199

Figure 4.46      Contribution of Oil and Non Oil Revenue to the Federation Account (2007 – 2015) —————————————————–    201

Figure 4.47      Oil Revenue as a Percentage of Total Government Revenue(2007 – 2015) ——————————————————–     201

Figure 4.48      Oil and Non Oil Revenue as Percentage of GDP(2007 – 2015) —————–    202

Figure 4.49      Oil Export as a Percentage of Total Government Export(2007 – 2015) ————-203

Figure 4.50      External Debt Profile (1960 – 2015) —————————–   205

Figure 4.51      Nigeria EITI Validation Score Card (2015) ————- 212

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1         Population of the Study ————————————  85

Table 3.2         Sample Size Distribution ————————————–   87

Table 3.3         Sample Size Distribution (NEITI) ————————————-   88

Table 4.1         NEITI and Revenue Remittances by Oil and Gas Companies to Government ————————    92

Table 4.2         NEITI and Data / Information Management of Oil and Gas Revenue Receipts by Government Agencies ——————– 104

Table 4.3         Shortfall in Remittance to Federation Account from Domestic Crude Proceeds ——————————————————-  109

Table 4.4         NEITI and Revenue Receipt Disclosure by Government Agencies ———————————————–    110

Table 4.5         Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Sales of Crude Oil and Gas, 2007 – 2014) ———————– 111

Table 4.6         Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Specific Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) —————————-            112

Table 4.7         Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Non Specific Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) ————————————- 113

Table 4.8         Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Other Financial Flows to Federal, States/ Local Governments & Government Entities, 2007 – 2014) —————————————————–   114

Table 4.9         Oil & Gas Sector Revenue Disclosure by Government (Aggregate Financial Flows, 2007 – 2014) —————————————-  115

Table 4.10      NEITI and the Financial, Physical, Process and Fiscal Allocation/ Statutory Disbursement (FASD) Audits (2007 – 2015) ——–121

Table 4.11       Comparison of Financial Flows (2007) —————– 122

Table 4.12       Comparison of Financial Flows (2008) —————— 123

Table 4.13       Comparison of Financial Flows (2009) ——————— 124

Table 4.14       Comparison of Financial Flows (2010) ————————- 124

Table 4.15       Comparison of Financial Flows (2011) ——————– 125

Table 4.16       Comparison of Financial Flows (2012) —————— 126

Table 4.17       Comparison of Financial Flows (2013) ————- 127

Table 4.18       Comparison of Financial Flows (2014) ———— 128

Table 4.19       Comparison of Physical Flows (Crude Oil Production Volumes, 2007 – 2014) ————————————————–   130

Table 4.20       Comparison of Physical Flows (Crude Oil Lifting Volumes, 2007 – 2014) ———————————–   135

Table 4.21       Federation Revenue (2007 – 2011) ————————————————– 140

Table 4.22       Federation Revenue Vertical Sharing Formula —— 144

Table 4.23       Disbursement of Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) —–   145

Table 4.24       Disbursement of Non Mineral Revenue (2007 – 2011) —–147

Table 4.25       Disbursement of VAT (2007 – 2011) ————-            150

Table 4.26       Publication of NEITI Audits ——————–            154

Table 4.27       NEITI and the Reconciliation/ Remediation of Audit Findings 155

Table 4.28       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2007) —————- 156

Table 4.29       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2008) ————— 157

Table 4.30       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2009) ——————- 158

Table 4.31       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2010) —————– 159

Table 4.32       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2011) ———————- 160

Table 4.33       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2012) —————- 161

Table 4.34       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2013) —————— 162

Table 4.35       Reconciliation of Financial Flows (2014) ———————– 163

Table 4.36       NEITI Audits and Natural Resource Revenue Governance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector ———————————- 167

Table 4.37       NEITI and Communication Linkages with Complementary Government Agencies ————————————-  172

Table 4.38       NEITI and Collaboration with Complementary Government Agencies ——————————————————-    173

Table 4.39       NEITI and Collaboration with Civil Society ————– 175

Table 4.40       NEITI and Accountability of Government on Public Spending —    179

Table 4.41       Challenges Affecting NEITI in Implementing EITI Standards ——–185

Table 4.42       Challenges Affecting Complementary Agencies in Supporting NEITI ——————————————————-   193

Table 4.43       PPT Fiscal Value Validation ————————  194

Table 4.44       Revalidation of the Royalty Value on Chargeable Oil —196

Table 4.45       NEITI and the Resource Curse Challenge in Nigeria — 198

Table 4.46       NEITI and Strategies Adopted to Foster Natural Resource Revenue Governance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector —-            206

Table 4.47      NEITI and Mechanisms for Improved Natural Resource Revenue Governance in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Sector ————– 224

Table 4.48       One Sample Statistics (NEITI and Transparency)——219

Table 4.49       One Sample Test (NEITI and Transparency) ——                 219

Table 4.50       One Sample Statistics (NEITI and Accountability) ——–220

Table 4.51       One Sample Test (NEITI and Accountability) ——-        220

Table 4.52       One Sample Statistics (Conflicting MSI and NRRG) ———–220

Table 4.53       One Sample Test (Conflicting MSI and NRRG) ——–221

Table 4.54       One Sample Statistics (Weak CS and NRRG) ——— 221

Table 4.55       One Sample Test (Weak CS and NRRG) ——221

Table 4.56       One Sample Statistics (IMS Synergy and NRRG) ———– 222

Table 4.57       One Sample Test (IMS Synergy and NRRG) ———222

Table 4.58       One Sample Statistics (CS Empowerment and NRRG) —222

Table 4.59       One Sample Test (CS Empowerment and NRRG) ——–223

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix I                  Interview Guide Questions ——————-            273

Appendix II               NEITI ACT, 2007 ————————————- 275

Appendix III               NEITI ACT, 2007 [Summary] ——————–            290

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

S/N ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS  MEANINGS

1     AGF Attorney General of the Federation

2     ANEEJ   Africa Network for Environment and Economic Justice

3     APP Adjusted Posted Price

4     AU   African Union

5     Bbls Barrel(s)

6     BEITI     Bayelsa Expenditure and Income Transparency Initiative

7     BL   Bill of Lading

8     BMPIU    Budget Monitoring and Price Intelligence Unit

9     BOFIA    Bank and Other Financial Institutions Act

10   CBN Central Bank of Nigeria

11   CBOs     Community Based Organizations

12   CFRN     Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

13   CISLAC  Civil Society Legislative Advocacy Center

14   CORC     Crude Oil Reconciliation Commission

15   CPPC     Centre for Public Private Cooperation

16   CRF Consolidated Revenue Fund

17   CSOs     Civil Society Organizations

18   CSR Corporate Social Responsibility

19   CSSC     Civil Society Steering Committee

20   DFID      Department for International Development

21   DPR Department of Petroleum Resources

22   E & P     Exploration and Production

23   ECA Excess Crude Account

24   EDT Education Tax

25   EFCC     Economic and Financial Crimes Commission

26   EGPS     Extractive Global Programmatic Support

27   EI    Extractive Industry

28   EIA  Environmental impact Assessment

29   EIR  Extractive Industries Review

30   EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

31   ESID      Effective States and Inclusive Development

32   EU  European Union

33   FAAC      Federation Accounts Allocation Committee

34   FASD     Fiscal Allocation and Statutory Disbursement

35   FBOs      Faith Based Organizations

36   FCT Federal Capital Territory

37   FDI  Foreign Direct Investment

38   FIRS       Federal Inland Revenue Service

39   FPOs      Federal Pay Offices

40   G20 Group of 20

41   G8   Group of 8

42   GDP Gross Domestic Product

43   GNP Gross National Product

44   GRPD     Greenfield Refinery Projects Division

45   GW  Global Witness

46   HDI Human Development Index

47   HPI  Human Poverty Index

48   HYSON   Hydrocarbon Services Nigeria Limited

49   IA    Independent Auditors

50   IBLF       International Business Leaders Forum

51   ICMM     International Council on Mining and Metals

52   ICPC      Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission

53   ICT  Information and Communication Technology

54   IFC  International Finance Corporation

55   IIDEA     International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

56   IMF International Monetary Fund

57   IMTT      Inter Ministerial Task Team

58   IOCs      International Oil Companies

59   JVs Joint Ventures

60   KPMG     Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler

61   KRPC     Kaduna Refining and Petro Chemical Company Limited

62   LDCs      Less Developed Countries

63   LGs Local Government (s)

64   LOCs      Local Oil Companies

65   MCA       Modified Carry Agreement

66   MDAs     Ministries, Departments and Agencies

67   MDTF     Multi Donor Trust Fund

68   MNCs     Multinational Corporations

69   MoU       Memorandum of Understanding

70   MR  Mineral Revenue

71   MSG       Multi Stakeholder Group

72   MSI Multi Stakeholder Initiative

73   NAOC     Nigerian Agip Oil Company

74   NAPIMS  National Petroleum Investment Management Service

75   NBS National Bureau of Statistics

76   NCDMB  Nigerian Content Development and Monitoring Board

77   NCS Nigeria Customs Service

78   NDDC    Niger Delta Development Commission

79   NEITI     Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

80   NEPA     National Electricity Power Authority

81   NESS     Nigerian Export Supervision Scheme

82   NETCO   National Engineering and Technical Company Limited

83   NGC       Nigerian Gas Company

84   NGOs     Non Governmental Organizations

85   NIMASA  Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency

86   NIWA      National Inland Waterways Authority

87   NLNG     Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas

88   NMR       Non Mineral revenue

89   NNOC    Nigerian National Oil Corporation

90   NNPC     Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation

91   NOCs     National Oil Companies

92   NPDC     Nigerian Petroleum Development Company

93   NRGI      Natural Resource Governance Institute

94   NSWG    National Stakeholders Working Group

95   OAGF     Office of the Accountant General of the Federation

96   OECD    Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

97   OPEC     Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

98   OSP Official Selling Price

99   PAYE      Pay As You Earn

100 PHCN     Power Holding Company of Nigeria

101 PHRC     Port Harcourt Refining Company

102 PITD       Petroleum and International Tax Department

103 PP   Posted Price

104 PPMC     Products and Pipelines Marketing Company

105 PPP Purchasing Power Parity

106 PPPRA    Petroleum Product Pricing Regulatory Agency

107 PPSRC    Petroleum Products Sales Reconciliation Committee

108 PPT Petroleum Profit Tax

109 PPTA      Petroleum Profit Tax Act

110 PRSPs    Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

111 PSCs      Production Sharing Contracts

112 PTDF      Petroleum Technology Development Fund

113 PWYP     Publish What You Pay

114 REI  Resource Endowment Initiative

115 RMAFC   Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal Commission

116 RP   Realizable Prices

117 RSCs      Risk Sharing Contracts

118 SCs Service Contracts

119 SDSN     Sustainable Development Solutions Network

120 SR   Sole Risk

121 SSA Sub Saharan Africa

122 TAIs Transparency and Accountability Initiatives

123 Tcf  Trillion Cubic Feet

124 TFP Total Factor Productivity

125 TGEXP   Total Government Export

126 U.S  United States

127 UKDFID  United Kingdom Department for International Development

128 UN  United Nations

129 VAT Value Added Tax

130 WB  World Bank

131 WHT       Withholding Tax

132 WRPC     Warri Refining and Petro Chemical Company Limited

133 WW II     Second World War / World War Two

135 www       World Wide Web

ABSTRACT

The impact of natural resources on development has been a controversial issue for decades. Natural resources were considered to offer developing countries great opportunities to boost economic growth and development. However, natural resource revenues, for most LDCs, have shown to generate adverse economic and political outcomes. The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) was launched in 2003 as an international policy and institutional intervention aimed at mitigating the negative effects of resource abundance by promoting the transparency of resource revenues and accountability of the governments in resource rich states. Nigeria signed on to the global EITI process, following an official launch in 2004, which led to the establishment of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI). The objective of the study was to assess the impact of NEITI on natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector from 2007 to 2015. The Institutional theory was adopted as the theoretical underpinning of the study. Survey design was employed as the research methodology. Data analysis was done by use of descriptive analysis. The data analyzed revealed that NEITI has enhanced natural resource revenue transparency but has not enhanced natural resource revenue accountability in the Nigerian oil and gas sector. It established that internal constraints such as inadequate funding, poor automation processes and limitations in the NEITI Act, and external constraints such as weak civil society, conflicting multi stakeholder interest, and lack of political will by government were factors that acted as impediments to NEITI’s role in enhancing natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector. The data analysis also revealed that NEITI’s strategies directed at effective audits, dissemination of information on NEITI processes, and increased collaboration with international organizations have not translated to improved natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector. The study recommended that the review of the NEITI Act, improved synergy between stakeholders in the NEITI framework, rapid automation of the oil and gas sector, timely publication of NEITI audits and vigorous civil society empowerment are mechanisms to be adopted by NEITI to improve natural resource revenue governance in the Nigerian oil and gas sector.

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