BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!
INFORMATION:
YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420
WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720
IMPACTS OF MODERNIZATION ON CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT AND TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN ADO AND IGEDE EKITI, EKITI STATE
ABSTRACT
This research work concentrates on the impacts of modernization on cultural heritage management and tourism development in Ado and Igede Ekiti, Ekiti State, because, it has been observed that, the management of cultural resources and activities is very low and most of the valuable cultural materials are scattered recklessly in these study areas. In order to appropriately elucidate the contents of this work, it is divided into chapters and sub-chapters. The broad objectives of the study are to identify and document the cultural resources – tangible and intangible, in these study areas, examine their importance, identify the basic impacts of modernization on cultural heritages and to highlight the various means through which museum administration and tourism development can help in the management and promotion of cultural heritages for posterity. The research methodology used is ethnographically qualitative in nature, while the instruments and methods of data collection include: in-depth fieldwork, surface reconnaissance, participant observation, focus group discussions, photographic documentation and interview, using interview guide. Findings from the study revealed that, there are many archaeological and ethnographic resources in these study areas, but, due to the acculturated western culture, especially Christianity and formal education, most of these are at present going into extinction. In spite of the effects of modernization in this contemporary period, this research recommends that, there is urgent need for the government, cultural institutions, societal groups, tourism developers, traditional rulers, families, individuals, hotel management and philanthropists to actively help in funding and promoting indigenous knowledge and technology in the country with the use of modern equipment and methods that people can appreciate. In view of this, cultural heritages will have a wide chance to sustain and thrive in the face of westernization.
Key Words: Culture, resources, museum, modernization, tourism, management, development
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page…………………………………………………………………………………..i
Approval Page……………………………………………………………….…………ii
Certification……………………………………………………………………………iii
Dedication……………………………………………………………………………..iv
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………..v
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….vii
List of Figures and Maps……………………………………………………………..viii
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………viii
List of Plates…………………………………………………………………………..ix
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………. ………xiv
Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………….1
1.0 Overview……………………………………………………………………….1
1.1 Statement of Problem…………………………………………………………..3
1.2 Research Questions…………………………………………………………….4
1.3 Research Objectives……………………………………………………………5
1.4 Research Methodology…………………………………………………………6
1.5 Significance of Study……………………………………………………………8
1.6 Limitations of Study…………………………………………………………….9
1.7 Scope of Study…………………………………………………………………10
1.8 Clarification of Concepts………………………………………………………10
Chapter Two: Literature Review……………………………………………………23
2.1 Theoretical Literature……………………………………………………….23
2.1.1 Modernization theory…………………………………………………………23
2.1.2 Systems theory………………………………………………………………..26
2.1.3 Structural functionalism………………………………………………………28
2.1.4 Classical theory / classicism…………………………………………………..29
2.2 Empirical Literature……………………………………………………………31
2.2.1 Tourism development in Nigeria………………………………………………31
2.2.2 Cultural heritages/resources management in Nigeria………………………….39
2.2.3 The place of museums in cultural heritage management in Nigeria…………..46
2.2.4 Benefits of museum in cultural heritage management and tourism development
In Nigeria………………………………………………………………………..49
2.2.5 Problems and prospects of museum and cultural heritage management
in Nigeria………………………………………………………………………52
2.3 Theoretical Orientation………………………………………………………55
Chapter Three: Background Information…………………………………………59
3.1 Geographical Location…………………………………………………………59
3.2 Climate and Vegetation………………………………………………………..62
3.3 Historical Background…………………………………………………………64
3.3.1 Historical background of Ado Ekiti……………………………………………64
3.3.2 Historical background of Igede Ekiti………………………………………….68
3.4 Social-Economic Activities……………………………………………………72
3.5 Social-Political Structures……………………………………………………..73
3.6 Social-Cultural Activities………………………………………………………74
Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis……………………………………77
4.1 Data Presentation…………………………………………………………….77
4.1.1 Cultural and natural resources in Ado Ekiti……………………………………77
4.1.2 Cultural and natural resources in Igede Ekiti………………………………….91
4.1.3 Cultural activities associated with Ado and Igede Ekiti…………………………106
4.1.4 The management of these cultural heritages/ resources in the past………….122
4.1.5 Impacts of modernization on cultural heritages in Ado and Igede Ekiti…….128
4.1.5.1 Positive impacts of modernization on cultural heritages in Ado and Igede
Ekiti …………………………………………………………………………128
4.1.5.2 Negative impacts of modernization on cultural heritages in Ado and Igede
Ekiti ………………………………………………………………………………….137
4.2 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………..157
4.2.1 Potentials of cultural and natural resources to tourism and community
development………………………………………………………………….157
4.2.2 Solutions to the effects of modernization on cultural and natural resources
in Ado and Igede Ekiti………………………………………………………162
4.2.3 Measures to preserve and conserve cultural and natural resources in
Ekiti State…………………………………………………………………….164
Chapter Five: Summary, Recommendations and Conclusion…………………..169
5.1 Summary……………………………………………………………………..169
5.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………………172
5.3 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………174
References…………………………………………………………………………..176
Websites……………………………………………………………………………..184
Appendixes……………………………………………………………………………..185
Interview questions…………………………………………………………………..185
Table of Informants………………………………………………………………….188
Those involved in group discussions…………………………………………………189
Institutions managing cultural resources in Nigeria and their functions……………190
Additional plates……………………………………………………………………..199
Acronyms…………………………………………………………………………… 200
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Ado and Igede Ekiti are towns in Ekiti State, in the south western part of Nigeria, the dominant region of Yoruba people. These culturally oriented towns traced their origins to Ile-Ife; a home town of Legendary Prince called Oduduwa, who was (is) classified as the Father and progenitor of the Yoruba people. Just like any other Yoruba settlement and people, it has been observed that, the inhabitants of these two towns have synonymous traditional ways of life that are peculiarly valuable to them, and also, differentiating them from other tribes and groups in the country.
In the past generations, before the introduction of colonialism and modernization, the people of Ado and Igede Ekiti had undiluted local practices and materials which were locally managed by the Kings, Chiefs, families and individuals who were maximally enthused in the conservation of these resources and practices. Then, the traditions of the people were generally and adorably exhibited in the areas of local delicacies, games, fashion/body ornament, architectural patterns, cultural landscapes, language, religious belief, political settings, greeting patterns, celebrations which included among others; naming, marriage, coronation, burial and festivals, and the type of materials used in depicting various indigenous technologies in their immediate environment.
Despite the traditional methods of preserving and managing these transferable and fragile heritages and resources, the diffusion and acculturation of western cultural characteristics in the form of modernization have obviously served as both beneficial and detrimental forces to the cultural sustainability and transmission of the people. This cultural evolution from traditional to modern societies, has greatly devalued the traditions of the people of Ado and Igede Ekiti.
This sudden cultural transformation led the researcher to have special interest in researching on the Impacts of Modernization on Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in Ado and Igede Ekiti. This is the intention to draw the attention of the government at all levels, cultural groups, archaeologists, museum administrators, philanthropists, tourism experts, anthropologists, ethnographers, hotel developers, environmentalists and individuals to how, what, when and whom to manage and promote cultural resources. This, at the same time, would help to develop the available natural endowment most especially the ones that are strongly entrenched in the customs of the people. This would also enlighten the public on the reasons why these resources need proper management and promotion in various localities.
This research work would lay more emphasis on cultural heritages and resources. Based on the data acquired in the field through personal communications (interviews), participatory observations, oral tradition and the recommendations given at the end, this work would go a long way in the management of cultural and natural resources in these study areas and beyond. This work has highlighted those enormous tapped and untapped, known and unknown locally preserved archaeological and ethnographic resources and attractive natural features like hills, rocks, mountains, rivers, streams and vegetations, that urgently need to be preserved, managed and promoted to prevent further deterioration and vandalism, and for posterity. This will buttress how valuable the management of natural and cultural heritages/resources is in community development.
Cultural resource management, with emphasis on the process through which the past can be understood in the present, cannot be properly achieved, if these resources are left only in the hands of the custodians who do not pay any serious attention to the cultural activities in these study areas, because some of them regard cultural materials and practices as archaic and fetish in nature. This mentality automatically classifies some of these indisputable traditional practices as idolatry, most especially among the Christians and educated fellows.
Due to cultural dynamism and the impacts of western cultural practices, specifically, Christianity and formal education, many of these traditional values in Ado and Igede Ekiti are deserted, and some destroyed to give way for road constructions and expansion of towns in all spheres of life. This is to designate that, cultural institutions at all levels of governments are urgently needed to effectively and efficiently formalize and promote these cherish-able resources and activities as cultural and tourism potentials, so as to massively attract more enthusiasts of cultural materials and events in and into the communities. In doing this, there would be an enabling environment for the promotion of cultural and nature-based forms of tourism development in the State.
Tourism development and modern museum establishments would have some laudable contributions in the management of cultural and natural resources for future utilization and benefits, when the modern methods and equipments suitable for these are incorporated in the system and methods of acquisition, preservation, education and exhibition upgraded to meet international standard. This step would make the culture or traditions of the people more gorgeous rather than being rejected in the various communities. This form of tourism and museum developments would directly and indirectly enhance the social, economic, political, religious and environmental attributes of the people of Ado and Igede Ekiti if well planned, implemented, monitored and managed, alongside with the host community as part of the stakeholders.
1.1 Statement of Problem
In the pre-colonial period when colonization had not, in any way, interfered in the traditions of the people, people lived comfortably in their immediate cultural environment and utilized their natural endowment sustainably, satisfactorily and attractively, but, due to the efficacious nature of acculturation in this contemporary period, reverse is the case. The effects of modernization on cultural and natural resources draw the attention of the researcher to the following issues in Ado and Igede Ekiti.
The management of cultural and natural resources is very poor in Ado and Igede Ekiti compared to other resources in our contemporary communities. The observations show that, people put more consideration in financial, economic, human and time resources than cultural and natural maintenance in the society.
Innumerable archaeological and ethnographic resources of Nigerian cultural heritage have been destroyed while some are totally abandoned in Ado and Igede Ekiti, and the effects of modernization, ignorance on the part of the custodians,
irresponsibility of cultural administrators, and ineffectual efforts of the government have adverse effects on cultural resources. Many of these resources are scattered recklessly in these study areas without any effective effort to preserve them for posterity.
The valuable and conducive traditional ways of life of the people in Ekiti State, Ado and Igede Ekiti in specific, are rapidly going into extinction. This local method is termed archaic and worshipping of idols, thereby making both fabricated (man-made) and natural resources embedded in people’s cultural practices uneasy to manage and transmit for posterity.
The roles of cultural institutions in educating people on how to collect, preserve, conserve, document, exhibit and manage both material and non-material cultural resources are not seriously putting into consideration in Ado and Igede Ekiti. This makes the inhabitants ignorant of their cultural values.
Tourism has not made much beneficial impacts in many Nigerian communities, and most of the natural attractions are not developed and secured, principally; the ones that are deeply rooted in the traditions of the people, while the cultural resources and events are also not promoted in Ado and Igede Ekiti.
1.2 Research Questions
There are many issues that brought about this research work and these are to be resolved at the end of this work. These research questions include the following:
What are the cultural heritages associated with the people of Ado and Igede Ekiti?
What are the importances of cultural heritage management in tourism and community development?
How did the people manage their cultural heritages and activities in the past?
What are the impacts of modernization on cultural heritages in Ado and Igede Ekiti?
What are the possible solutions to the effects of modernization on cultural heritages in Ado and Igede Ekiti?
What are the roles of museum and tourism development in the management of cultural heritages in Nigeria?
1.3 Research Objectives
Having stated the problems that brought forth this research work, now, the primary and realistic aims and objectives to achieve at the end of this research work in Ado and Igede Ekiti are:
To identify and document the cultural and natural resources in Ado and Igede Ekiti in Ekiti State.
To examine the importance of cultural heritage management in tourism and community development.
To identify the basic impacts of modernization on cultural heritages in Ado and Igede Ekiti.
To examine the possible means to salvage, conserve, exhibit and rejuvenate all retrievable material and non-material resources for posterity using modern methods or systems.
To examine the steps to take in ameliorating the negative effects of modernization on cultural and natural resources in these study areas.
To highlight the expedient characteristics and contributions of museum establishment in tourism and community development, and the means through which tourism can help in managing cultural heritage and resources in the country.
Based on the above finds, to make indelible recommendations for improvement and to make this research work available for other researchers and the government in dealing with cultural and natural resources management.
1.4 Research Methodology
This research work is based on the impacts of modernization on cultural heritage management and tourism development, and it is very crucial to carry out ethnographic research in the study areas. This section explained the type of research methodology and the various sources of data collection.
Research Design: In order to get the insight and in-depth understanding of this topic, the research design incorporated is qualitative ethnographic method of research, because, the researcher carried out surface reconnaissance, and the extant inhabitants who utililize the cultural resources were interviewed with the use of semi-structured interview guide that comprised the necessary questions to cover the topic under study. Through these, the cultural activities and materials in Ado and Igede Ekiti would not be concealed to the researcher.
Methods and Instruments of Data Collection: Under this qualitative research methodology, the method used to gather information in the field is ethnographic type of research in which the researcher interracted with the settlers in the form of interview and survey while the instruments used in sourcing for accurate, reliable and verifiable information in this research work are through the primary sources, secondary sources and photographic documentation. These are explained below.
The primary sources: This method was used in the field through semi-structured interview, participant observation and surface reconnaissance or survey. In order to acquire reliable and verifiable information on the impacts of modernization on cultural and natural resources management and tourism development, in-depth interviews and discussions, using interview guide (Questionnaire) were conducted with culturally ingrained key informants in Ado and Igede Ekiti, the towns under study.
In this primary sourcing strategy, the researcher, through the help of the interviewees and those who are culturally motivated, also carried out ethnographic research and reconnaissance survey to compare and contrast the past and present conditions of the general ways of life of the people under study. This was valuably and resourcefully functional in disclosing several archaeological sites and resources that are needed to be rescued and preserved in the study areas.
Beside this, participatory observation method was incorporated in this research work, in which the researcher previously and currently participated as an observer in many cultural ceremonies (Festivals, marriage, naming, coronation and burial rites) and frequently makes use of many cultural materials to meet domestic needs, and to attain communal activities. This method really added impetus to the knowledge of the researcher by witnessing the cultural events in their original state, and to vividly account for them. This also helped to draw attention to the changes that have been transpired on the traditions of the people because of modernization. In addition, the researcher is a native of Igede Ekiti, one of the towns under study.
Also, focus group discussions were conducted among educated and uneducated sets of people to acquire as much as possible facts or data on the topic under study. This was to gain diverse knowledge in their personal contributions.
The Secondary Sources: The secondary source of data collection was also used. The sources among others are from varieties of textbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers, internet, graphics and other published and unpublished materials or articles written by professional and reliable authors, most crucially in the fields of archaeology, museum studies, tourism, Yoruba language, anthropology, sociology, management, biology, geography, economics, religion etc. This helped to acquire several authors’ views in the areas of cultural resources management and tourism development.
Photographic documentation: The research on cultural activities in the society needs photographical evidences to know the actual nature of what that is being studied. This method, using camera to capture necessary and permissible features, materials and activities under study and the tape to record the interview conversations and some events, was also incorporated to document accurate primary information in the field.
The primary, secondary and photographic methods of data collection helped the researcher to acquire wide-range information to achieve a dependable project work in content and context so as to avoid relying on arms-chair theory that makes use of only secondary documents without actually going for proper in-depth research.
Method of Data Presentation and Analysis: Due to the fact that the research methodology used in this work is qualitative in nature, the data presentation and analysis are not or less numerical or statistical but socially observable and verifiable in nature. The data acquired through in-depth interview, photographing, surface reconnaissance or survey and participant observation were presented and analysed according to the structure of the interview guide. In order to illustrate the cultural resources and the impacts of modernization on them in Ado and Igede Ekiti, tables, plates and figures were inserted in the work together with the responses gathered during the interviews.
1.5 Significance of Study
There are many benefits to derive from researching on the impacts of modernization on cultural heritage management and tourism development in Ado and Igede Ekiti. The following valuable contributions will be achieved at the end of this research work.
It will make enormous cultural heritages and resources in Ado and Igede Ekiti conspicuous to the people, governments, non-governmental bodies, museum administrators, archaeologists, ethnographers, cultural inducers, tourism developers, etc to avoid further deterioration.
It will enlighten the Nigerian communities especially the inhabitants of Ado and Igede Ekiti on the importance of preserving both tangible and intangible resources of their respective culture.
This research work will automatically and widely discover many archaeological data, resources and sites to be rescued and salvaged to boost cultural and historical documents of Ado and Igede Ekiti, the towns under study.
It will be of assistance to find some possible solutions to the adverse effects of modernization on the tradition of the people, so that modernization would serve as cultural and developmental catalyst, rather than encouraging cultural vandalism and looting in the society.
This will enlighten the local populace about the important of museum establishment, and show that museums have crucial roles in acquiring, preserving, conserving, documenting, educating and exhibiting the rich cultural and natural endowments for community development and national integration.
It will help to know the resources to be developed, managed and promoted for tourism and community development (e.g. cultural and nature-based or eco-tourism). This development can bring forth the provision of social amenities and infrastructures, construction of modern roads, active cultural institutions, sustainable environment, provision of employment opportunities and many other benefits in the study areas.
Finally, the recommendations that would be given in this report would optimistically provide the necessary information and strategies needed by the students, researchers, government and other sets of people, who are concerned in the development and management of cultural and natural resources to boost the disciplines of archaeology, museum, tourism and other cultural related fields in the community.
1.6 Limitations of Study
As it is said, ‘no research work is ever hundred percent predicaments free’, the researcher must courageously encounter, and at the end, overcome some limitations in the course of the research before achieving vital information and target(s). The following are the problems encountered in the field.
Due to suspicion, the researcher was denied access to some of the indoor cultural resources and secretive places most especially in the palaces and the residential homes of some of the concerned Chiefs.
Financial constraints: The cost of transportation to and fro of the towns under study, and the movement within the destination was so expensive (high). The cost of accommodation in Ado Ekiti, the Ekiti State Capital, during the research activities was also expensive.
Some of the key informants refused to be photographically documented base on the fearful nature of life and the state of insecurity in the country. Furthermore, some refused to give, in details, their personal data and the historical background of their town during personal communications with them.
Though language was not a barrier during the research activities, but, to secure comfortable or convenient appointment with the key informants demanded a lot of resources, such as time, energy and money.
Risk and exposure: In the course of this research, the researcher really indulged in many adventurous travelling despite personal religious profession, and had a fatal accident in the course of acquiring extensive and factual information about the topic and towns under study.
1.7 Scope of Study
Although, this research work is basically centred on the Impacts of Modernization on Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in Ado and Igede Ekiti, Ekiti State, in order to make a good research work in conformity with the theoretical and empirical evidences, the research had to go beyond the towns and the topic under study, so that, the write-up would not be restrictively emphasized only on in-depth interview, but also to stretch to other related areas or disciplines.
To avoid this work to be narrow in content and context, emphasis was drawn from neighbouring towns like Ikogosi, Ife, Idanre, Osun, etc, other States in the country and many related disciplines like Anthropology, History, Sociology, Economics, Yoruba literature, Political Science, Biology, Government, Religion and Agriculture Science, with a bid to drive home expected points for easy understanding of this research work.
1.8 Clarification of Concepts
In order to make this research work understandable both in contents and contexts, the important terms that would be clarified include the following: culture, resources, management, tourism and development.
Culture
Everybody in the society behaves according to what their culture is made up of, that is why different societies have different ways of life. Due to the heterogeneous nature of culture, its definition cannot be confined in a particular definition. This means that, there is no specific definition for culture; instead the most common approach to defining it is to enumerate or describe its components (i.e. descriptive approach). E. B. Taylor, for example, a nineteenth century Anthropologist, who provided one of the earliest formal definitions of the term, describes culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Taylor, 1903:1). While according to Carbaugh (1988: 38) culture is referred to various “patterns of symbolic actions and meanings that are deeply felt, commonly understood and widely accessible”.
From the above definitions, it has been clearly stated that culture is classified as the total ways of life of man in his immediate environment, which include material and non-material aspects in the society. The material aspects include those valuable objects that can be seen, touched and used by man in the society to achieve personal or communal goals. These included among others architectural buildings, work of arts, kitchen utensils, instruments of work, etc while non-materials are those aspects of culture in the society that cannot be seen, touched but used and felt. These include ceremonies, language, norm, law, affection, belief, proverbs, tales, riddles, myths, songs, dances, etc.
In order to acquire understandable meaning of culture, Andah (1982: 75) diverts attentions to the following highlighted features of cultures.
What we are taught by our elders, about ourselves, environment, etc: In this statement, it has been shown that, human being are not born with the genetic imprint of a particular culture, instead, people learn about their culture through interactions with parents, other family members, friends and even strangers who are part of the culture. This shows one of the characteristics of culture, that is, it can be learned in the society as people frequently socialize.
How we are taught these things as individuals, and as part of a group or of the entire community: culture is seen as a set of shared ideas with full interpretations through interactions, and cultural activities are directly and indirectly taught in the community.
What we do in the technological, social, political, religious and other sphere: This is based on the spectacular activities of man within a social entity that distinguish them from other groups, for example occupation, festivals, dressing styles, types of food, nomenclature, etc.
How we do all these various things: Culture differentiates one society from others in the way they indulge in and address various activities in their environment. The methods of celebrating events, dressing styles, mode of greetings, fashion tools, conflict resolution, etc exhibit the cultural attributes of the people in the society.
What we teach (or pass on) to our children about themselves, ourselves, others, our history, our values in all spheres… This emphasizes on social heredity of a group of people, suggesting that the new members or generation of a culture must be taught its fundamental ideas, practices and experiences. This therefore asserts that, culture is symbolically transmitted from one generation to the other, most especially, from parents to children, who in turn grow up and teach their own children the culture’s customs and expectations (see Myron et al, 1999: 28-29).
How we pass our tradition on or down… In this, each culture must have various ways of passing on or down its tradition to the next generation. It can be done through oral tradition, apprenticeship or whatsoever methods of transferring ideas. The method of transferring culture practices can be in parts or whole, due to the fact that culture is dynamic, some aspects may not be totally passed across to the subsequent generation.
From the above characteristics of culture by Andah, it shows that culture can be learned, transmitted, changed, shared, and involves a set of ideas and group of people interacting in the same social entity.
(b) Resources.
These are the composition of the free gifts of nature and what have been fashioned out by man as man-made, which are also available in the society to meet societal and individual needs and wants. Okpoko and Okpoko (2002: 38) classify resources as “the wealth and materials available to an individual or nation, which can be used to achieve desired objectives’’. This means that resources are sources or supplies from which benefits are derived. The resources that are available for man in the society can be divided into two namely: natural and cultural forms of resources.
According to Miller and Spoolman (2011), natural resources are classified as those animate and inanimate things created by nature and obtainable from the environment to satisfy human needs and wants. They are the things through which other things are formed or fashioned out for man to use in the society. Examples of natural resources include man, water, vegetation, animals, rocks, mountains, caves, air, soil, minerals, etc.
While on the other hand, cultural resources or heritages refer to those rich past evidences of human activities consisting both material and non-material characteristics acquired within the society which are transmitted from one generation to the other. These evidences included among others: festivals, historic and pre-historic artifacts, rock inscriptions, human burial sites, earthworks such as battlefield entrenchments, abandoned cave, shrines, war regalia, diets, architecture, dances, beads, primitive currencies, local games, body ornaments, objects of royalty, carved wood and stone objects, industrial sites, abandoned settlements, etc of a given society.
According to Lipe (1984:1), some of these resources (mentioned above) are still in continual usage in this contemporary period, just like in some of the historic and ethnographic resources, while some of the archaeological sites consist of partial debris and traces of the past human behavoural activities. He also added that “because human beings generally modify the landscapes in which they live, and because they attach names, myths, and affective values to features of the territory they inhabit, the landscapes of past cultures may also qualify as cultural resources”. Many natural endowments like hills, rivers, rocks, trees, animals, etc have been embedded in the culture of the society because people create meanings in them. For example “Ogbunike Cave in Anambra State and Olumo Rock in Ogun State, can be classified as cultural resources due to their utility to the past inhabitants of the areas and the values which the present society attach to them” (Okpoko et al, 2002: 39). Some animals like dogs, snail, cock, tortoise, python, pigeons, lions, tiger, etc are also important in the culture of many communities.
(c) Management
There are many definitions of management as long as there are many disciplines that apply it in their various sectors. Some of these definitions are relatively concise and simplistic. For example, over a century ago, according to Taylor (1903: 10), management is defined as “knowing exactly what you want (people) to do, and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way”. In this point of view, however, as management is concerned, it is much more complex than the above definition. In order to have complete definition of management, four (4) basic kinds of inputs or resources from their environment, namely human, financial, physical and information, must be present.
According to Onah (2003: 1-4) as he directs the roles of a manager to these inputs or resources that “Management is responsible for combining and coordinating these various resources to achieve the organizations goals”. He further states that, managers combine and coordinate these various resources to achieve the aims and objectives of the organization by carrying out the following basic managerial functions or activities which are: planning and decision making, organizing, leading and controlling. This is why Griffin (1997) defines management as “a set of activities (including planning and decision- making, organizing, leading and controlling) directed at an organizations resources (human, financial, physical and information) with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner’’.
This means that management is an act of planning and positioning the right persons to maintain available resources so as to achieve general goals. In these views, it is also clearly stated that to manage cultural and natural resources effectively and efficiently in the communities, culturally oriented individuals and groups should serve as custodians of these resources for proper conservation.
(d) Tourism
Tourism is a multidisciplinary and multifaceted discipline that its origin is as old as the creation of man. According to Fadipe (2007: 25), when trying to explain that tourism is not a contemporary or new development, states that, “it is dated back to the evolution of man”, that for instance, tourism began in Europe with the development of Spas and Seaside resorts which are mostly concerned with religious and recreational activities, sight-seeing, education, relaxation, etc. And in Africa, it was begun with people visiting their in-laws and relatives and some activities connected with traditional sports and festivals, where local wrestling tournaments and displaying of other cultural activities attracted various people (Fadipe, 2007: 25).
He further explained that, tourism in the modern world goes beyond mere visit to relatives, religious centres and festival, and defines tourism as “the movement of people from their usual place of work or residence to a destination for a short period of time, the activity engaged in the course of travelling such as mode of transportation, types of accommodation used, facilities utilized, attractions visited and interaction experienced with the host communities’’ (Fadipe, 2007: 25).
Because of the interdisciplinary nature of tourism, it has also been defined as each discipline understands it. Some classify it as activity or a system while tourism organization claims it as an industry. The school of thought who perceives it as an activity sees tourism as an economically oriented sector with human at the center of the resources (attraction, accommodation and facilities) and describes it as the “temporary movement of people to destination outside their normal places of work and residence, and the activities undertaken during the time spent at those destinations. This school of thought also classifies tourism as “a complex trade covering all movements of people outside their own community for all the purposes except migration or regular work” (Mathieson and Wall, 1982:1, Fadipe, 2007: 25-26).
The theorists who see tourism as a system narrate it as “a set of interrelated groups coordinated to form a unified whole and organized to accomplish a set of goals which allows for understanding both from a micro (individual tourism film) and macro (entire tourism system) point of view” (Fadipe, 2007: 26). This indicates that tourism can be viewed in the level of the whole system or as a unit within the system, i.e. parts of tourism.
Tourism is also being classified as industry most especially by the private sector or organizations under the auspices of the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). In this, they see travel and tourism “as the network of business that is engaged in the transport, accommodation, feeding, entertainment and core of the traveller” (Marthinus, 2001: 31). This points out that tourism as an industry encompasses different sectors that are involved in its activities for the purpose of rendering services to the tourists most importantly in exchange for money, e.g. hotels, travel agencies, food vendors, transport industry, etc.
According to Davidson (1993: 2), tourism is simply put as “about people being away from their own homes, on short term, temporary visits for particular tourism purposes”, while Holvik and Heiberg (1980) defined tourist “as a temporary visitor staying for at least twenty-four hours in the country visited and the purpose of whose journey can be classified under the following headings;
Leisure (recreation, holiday, health, study, religions and sport)
Business, family, mission, meeting”.
World Tourism Organization defines tourist as people “travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes” (WTO, 1995: 10). Institute of Tourism in Britain also clarifies the concept of tourism as “the temporary short time movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live or work, and the activities during their stay at these destinations: it includes movement for all purposes, as well as day visits and excursions” (Holloway, 1989: 9-10).
According to all these definitions, be it as activity, system or industry, tourism can be seen as a temporary and voluntary movement of people away from usual location for the purpose of satisfying their personal curiosity, for at least twenty-four hours without any remuneration or employment at the destination. To satisfy curiosity can be in the areas of health, sports, business, visiting, education, meeting etc. This purpose of travelling is to satisfy leisure time with suitable recreation activities.
Typologies of Tourism
Tourism can be divided into many different forms on the basis of geographical location, purpose, type of transport used, length of stay, price paid etc. This aspect would base on the geographical location and purpose. The former is divided into three (3) major types. These are domestic, regional and international forms of tourism.
i. Domestic Tourism:This is a form of tourism that is undertaken within the common area of the people. This can be in the same community, local government, state and country. According to Da’Silva (1985), it is defined as “the movement of people within their country for business, leisure, culture, sports and health purposes, as well as the movement of foreigners within the country they reside for any of these purposes”. This form of tourism encourages people in the various localities to appreciate the natural, cultural and manmade resources in their national and immediate social environments. There is no need of crossing national boundary and acquiring of visa or travel permit before undergoing this type of tourism.
This form of tourism can be the movement of people (Tourists) from Ekiti State or other States of the Federation to witness New Yam Festival in Enugu State, and the movement of those living in Enugu State to the host community. The domestic tourists can devote leisure time to touring round their own Local Government Area, State or the whole country as long as it is not less than twenty-four hours.
ii. Regional Tourism:According to Okpoko et al (2011: 13-14), “it involves movement to and stay for about twenty-four hours within a given sub-region for the purpose of leisure, culture, sports, conference etc. For example, any such movement to and from one West African sub-region or ECOWAS country to another is technically called regional tourism”. Instead of Visa, entry permit or ECOWAS travel certificate would be tendered by those travellers who belong to such given sub-region e.g. Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, etc but travellers from United States of America, South Africa, Japan, etc., would present visa to legalize the movement of such tourists into and within the preferred destination.
This form of tourism creates better understanding among the regional countries and people, and most beneficially, encourages distribution and redistribution of income and ideas in that particular region.
iii. International Tourism: This form of tourism involves presentation of Visa changing and exchange of currency. According to Da’Silva (1985), international tourism “involves the movement of people across national boundaries for various reasons into foreign countries other than the one in which the traveller is residing and the movement can be by road, air or sea”. This type exposes people from different locations to global cultural practices and systems. As Okpoko et al (2011: 14) put it that, this form of tourism “helps to enhance international cooperation, generate foreign currency and promote cultural exchange among people of different countries of the world, therefore helps to broaden the social cultural understanding among people”. In this form of tourism, there would be implication of language at the destination due to the fact that, it involves associating with people of different background, race, language, currency, environment and ideology, Taking for example, the movement of tourists from Nigeria to the United States of America, China or Japan and vice versa belongs to this type of tourism.
Apart from these three major types of tourism, other forms of tourism according to the purpose of visitation or movement include the following:
Cultural Tourism: This is a type of tourism through which people have interests in cultural activities and materials. This is what Gail (1999) defines as “a visit by persons from outside the host community motivated wholly or in part by interest in the historical, artistic, scientific or life style/heritage offerings of a community, region, group or institution”.
This form of tourism enhances the promotion of traditional values and customs in the society. Some of the cultural endowments like historic sites, local delicacies, mode of dressing, festivals, language, archaeological sites, local industrial sites, palaces, shrines, groves, museums, etc, usually attract people far and near to be appreciated. For instance, Osun-Osogbo Festival in Osun State, Mkpokiti Acrobatic Dance Troupe, Umunze, New Yam Festival in various towns and villages in Igbo land, Egungun Festival in Yoruba societies, etc, attract many tourists and spectators far and near to the host communities. This serves as a vehicle for rural and cultural revitalization.
Eco or Nature Based Tourism: This form of tourism primarily aims at conserving and managing natural resources through developing, managing and promoting them into eye-catching scenic views or landscape for people to appreciate. According to Fadipe (2007: 191-192), eco tourism is “one of the leading segments of leisure travel and defined as environmental friendly tourism which maintains cultural integrity, ecological balance and preservation of biodiversity”. As Okpoko et al (2011:16) added managerial function to this, that “it is a form of tourism that promotes conservation and preservation of local natural resources through an appropriate management”.
These natural resources include among others rivers, lakes, waterfalls, forest and wildlife, mountains, hills, rocks, caves, weather conditions, beaches, mineral and other intrusive and extrusive landforms in all the vegetation zones. For example Idanre hills in Ondo State, Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi State, Ikogosi Warm Spring in Ekiti State, Obudu Ranch Resort in Cross River State, etc, are developed, managed and being promoted as tourists’ destinations using modern infrastructures and facilities to sustain and maintain their attractiveness. This type of tourism also helps to conserve natural environment against further destruction and deforestation especially in the face of behavioural activities and modern constructions.
Business Tourism: This can be referred to as economic tourism or business travel in which business men and women make transaction of goods and services within and outside their geographical location for at least twenty-four hours. This type is classified “as the movement of people from one place to another to buy and sell goods, attend meetings or conferences as well as conventions, within and outside the country” (Okpoko et al, 2011: 19) for at least 24 hours.
According to Fadipe (2007: 197) in his explanation, classifies business tourism as activities and meetings which are aimed at promoting understanding among professional groups or business partners. In this case, he explains that despite advancement in the area of technology with the introduction of e-mailing, fascinating transmission and teleconferencing, business tourism still demand face-to-face interaction i.e. round-table discussions in the form of seminars, workshops, expositions, congress, conventions and trade fairs, which also involve fixed participation fees.
This form of tourism helps to boost structural and economic development, increases national earnings, and to share new business planning and strategies among the countries involved.
Religious Tourism: This is the movement of religious faithful or believers to uncommon but valuable religious destinations to learn more about their faith and belief. Most of these destinations are usually linked to the origin of the religion and settlements of their faithful pathfinders. Every religion has special and sacred sites that would be organized and promoted to motivate the faithful. These sacred locations or shrines could be within or outside their country. For instance, Christians and Muslims pilgrims move to Jerusalem and Mecca respectively to step on the root of their faith (Aremu, 2001). People also attend crusades, retreats, congress, seminars, concerts, etc, in different religious programmes while the traditionalists or cultural oriented pilgrims visit shrines and participate in festivals, for example Osun-Osogbo Shrine in Osun State, Ududonka Shrine at Agulu in Anambra State.
Sport Tourism: Sports and athletics are recreational activities that people both at the local, regional and international levels massively participate and cherish. This form of tourism is the movement of sport inducers to partake or witness sport events for at least twenty-four hours within and outside the country other than the usual environment where the tourists reside and work. According to Okpoko et al (2011: 8), this type of tourism “involves the movement of people from one place to another to participate in or watch different types of sports”.
These games that sport tourists appreciate include among others: soccer or football, long tennis, long jump, high jump, automobile races, skating, volleyball, table tennis, draught, swimming, basketball, marathon race, hockey, boxing, wrestling etc. These are organized in various countries, communities, schools – colleges, polytechnics and Universities as inter-house or inter-school sport competitions, National Colleges of Education Games (NACEGA), National Universities Games (NUGA), Nation’s and World Cup, etc.
Using Champion and Premier League competitions as global examples, these games have several fans or supporters all over the world who motivate the clubs unconditionally like Chelsea, Manchester United, Arsenal, etc. This form of tourism helps to promote national, regional and international unity and mutual understanding among the people of diverse backgrounds.
(e) Development
For any nation to be a developed entity, it must be economically viable, politically stable, environmentally conducive, religiously tolerant, culturally acceptable and socially hospitable, so that the major issues affecting man and his immediate environment would be addressed straightforwardly. Scholars characteristically define this term based on the nature of their disciplines because development is seen in different dimensions with different meanings.
According to Dudley Seers (1972: 123-129), a development Economist, sees development as minimization of poverty, unemployment and inequality. That for a country to be developed, these three questions must be addressed to minimal: what has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? These three key words (poverty, unemployment and inequality) are the backbone and the major issues of any society. This indicates that the levels of poverty, unemployment and inequality determine the state of development in the country. When these are resolved, development is said to be achieved in the society.
Todaro (1982: 4) views development “as both physical reality and a state of the mind in which society has through some consolation of socio-economic and industrial processes secured the means for obtaining a better life”. He further encloses development under the following three objectives:
To increase the availability, and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods (basic needs) such as food, shelter, health and protection.
To raise the levels of living, including higher income, the provision of more jobs, better education and greater attention to cultural and humanistic values, all of which will serve not only to enhance material well-being, but also to generate greater individual and national self esteem.
To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations of freeing them from servitude and dependence, not only in relation to other people and nation-states, but also to the forces of ignorance or human misery.
From the above definitions, development can be seen as an act of improvement of various resources in the society to enhance economic, health, social, political, religious and environmental advancement to meet their needs and wants. But, in view of the fact that the term ‘development’ has been misinterpreted and abused based on relying only on structures and constructions, with the efforts of the United Nations, sustainable development is presently adopted as a form of development indicators in the world. This sustainable development is defined by World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) as “development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987: 43, also see Elliot, 2006: 10).
This sustainable development would help in guiding the social, economic and environment sectors in various communities so as to live comfortably in the society and to plan a better life for the coming generations. This is a form of development that would be beneficially suitable for all sectors and disciplines including cultural and natural resources management in the country both in the contemporary period and for posterity.
HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)
After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to
08068231953 or 08168759420
(1) Your project topics
(2) Email Address
(3) Payment Name
(4) Teller Number
We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert
BANK ACCOUNTS
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 0046579864
Bank: GTBank.
OR
Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI
Account Number: 3139283609
Bank: FIRST BANK
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:
08068231953 or 08168759420